Aksi, Initial State, Final State & Struktur Kontrol

download disini

Read More

KALKULUS INTEGRAL (DOWNLOAD)

BAGIAN IV
KALKULUS INTEGRAL

Kegunaan integral sebagai ilmu bantu dalam geometri, teknologi, biologi dan ekonomi
tak dapat disangkal lagi. Orang yang tercatat dalam sejarah pertama kali mengemukakan
ide tentang integral adalah Archimedes seorang ilmuwan bangsa Yunani yang berasal
dari Syracusa (287 – 212  SM). Archimedes menggunakan ide integral tersebut untuk
mencari luas daerah suatu lingkaran, daerah yang dibatasi oleh parabola dan tali busur
dan sebagainya. Sejarah mencatat orang  yang paling berjasa dalam hal pengembangan
kalkulus integral adalah Georg Friederich Benhard Riemann (1826 – 1866).
A.  Integral Taktentu
1.  Integral sebagai operasi invers dari turunan.
Misalkan fungsi f adalah turunan dari fungsi F, yang berarti 
f(x) F(x) dx
dF(x)
= = 
Pandanglah pendiferensialan fungsi-fungsi di bawah ini
 F(x) = x3
           ⇒ F′(x) = f(x) = 3x2

F(x) = x3
 + 5     ⇒ F′(x) = f(x) = 3x2

F(x) = x2
 − 17 ⇒ F′(x) = f(x) = 3x2

F(x) = x3
 + c  (c = konstanta) ⇒ F′(x) = f(x) = 3x2

Sekarang timbul pertanyaan apakah dari hubungan F′(x) = f(x) ini jika f(x) dikethui
maka f(x) pasti dapat ditentukan ?
Suatu operasi mencari F(x) jika f(x) diketahui  yang merupakan invers dari operasi
pendiferensialan disebut operasi anti derivatif, anti diferensial, anti turunan yang
biasa disebut Operasi integral.
Dari contoh di atas dapat ditarik kesimpulan bahwa anti turunan dari f(x) = 3x2
 adalah
F(x) = x3
 + c , c = konstanta.
Dari pengertian bahwa integral adalah invers dari Operasi pendiferensialan, maka
apabila terdapat fungsi F(x) yang diferensial pada interval [a, b] sedemikian hingga
f(x) (x) F'
dx
df(x)
= =  maka anti turunan dari f(x) adalah F(x) + c, dan biasa kita tulis
dengan notasi.
∫ + = =  c    F(x)     f(x)dx     Notasi
∫ adalah notasi integral tak  tentu.
Catatan :
Orang yang pertama kali memperkenalkan lambang
∫ sebagai lambang
integral adalah Leibniz, yang disepakati sebagai slah seorang penemu dari
Kalkulus.

untuk full nya (DOWNLOAD DISINI)

Read More

TURUNAN SUATU FUNGSI (Download)

BAGIAN III
TURUNAN SUATU FUNGSI 


A. Turunan Fungsi Aljabar
Sesuatu yang bersifat tetap di dunia ini adalah perubahan itu sendiri, banyak
kejadian-kejadian yang melibatkan perubahan. Misalnya gerak suatu obyek
(kendaraan berjalan, roket bergerak, laju pengisian air suatu tangki), pertumbuhan
bibit suatu tanaman, pertumbuhan ekonomi, inflasi mata uang, berkembangbiaknya
bakteri, peluruhan muatan radioaktif dan sebagainya.
Studi tentang garis singgung dan penentuan kecepatan benda bergerak yang dirintis
oleh Archimedes (287 – 212 SM), Kepler (1571 – 1630), Galileo (1564 – 1642),
Newton (1642 – 1727) dan Leibniz (1646 – 1716) dapat dipandang sebagai peletak
dasar dari kalkulus diferensial ini. Namun para ahli berpendapat bahwa Newton dan
Leibniz-lah dua orang yang paling banyak  andilnya pada pertumbuhan kalkulus.
Konsep dasar dari turunan suatu fungsi adalah laju perubahan nilai fungsi.

untuk full nya (DOWNLOAD DISINI)

Read More

Limit Fungsi (Download)

LIMIT FUNGSI


A. Latar Belakang
Kalkulus adalah salah satu cabang dari matematika yang sangat penting dan
banyak diterapkan secara luas pada cabang-cabang ilmu pengetahuan yang lain,
misalnya pada cabang sains dan teknologi, pertanian, kedokteran, perekonomian
dan sebagainya. Pada makalah ini akan dibahas tiga pokok bahasan, pokok utama
dari kalkulus yakni limit fungsi, diferensial fungsi dan integral fungsi. Sebenarnya
ada dua cabang dalam kalkulus itu sendiri, yakni kalkulus diferensial dan kalkulus
integral, dan jika diperhatikan inti dari pelajaran kalkulus adalah memakai dan
menentukan limit suatu fungsi. Bahkan secara ekstrim kalkulus dapat didefinisikan
sebagai pengkajian tentang limit. Oleh karena itu pemahaman tentang konsep dan
macam-macam fungsi diberbagai cabang ilmu pengetahuan serta sifat-sifat dan
operasi limit suatu fungsi merupakan syarat mutlak untuk memahami kalkulus
diferensial dan kalkulus integral.

B. Limit Fungsi Aljabar
1. Limit Fungsi secara Intuitif.
    Perhatikan contoh di bawah ini

untuk full nya download disini

Read More

Dinamika

DynamicsDynamics
z After studying Kinematics, we know how to describe
motion in two and three dimensions.
z But what causes this motion?
z Dynamics is the study of the relationship between
motion of objects and the cause of the motion
(forces).
z We will use kinematics' quantities such as displacement,
velocity, and acceleration.
z Two new concepts: force and mass.Forces
z A force is a push or pull on an object.
z The concept of force gives us a quantitative description of the
interaction between two bodies or between a body and its
environment.
z Some types of forces include:
z Contact forces
z Long-Range Forces (gravitational attraction, electrostatic
force,...)
z Forces are vectors - they have magnitude and direction.
z Forces obey the superposition principle: the effect of any
number of forces applied to a point on an object is the same
as the effect of a single force equal to the vector sum of the
forces applied at that point. Forces
2 1 F F R
r r r
+ =
z Forces are vectors - they have magnitude and direction.
z Forces obey the superposition principle: the effect of any number
of forces applied to a point on an object is the same as the effect of a
single force equal to the vector sum of the forces applied at that
point. Newton’s First Law
z Newton's First Law (Law of Inertia)
z An object at rest will remain at rest unless it is acted upon by
a net external force. An object in motion with constant
velocity will continue to move with constant velocity unless it
is acted upon by a net external force.
z Inertia
z The tendency of a body to keep moving once it is set in
motion.
z Equilibrium
z If the net external force on a body is zero it is said to be in
equilibrium. An object in equilibrium will either be at rest or
in motion in a straight line with constant velocity.
∑ = 0 F
r
∑ ∑ = = 0 0 y x F FNewton’s Second Law
What happens if the net force is not zero?Newton’s Second Law
Experiments show that for any given body the magnitude of the
acceleration is directly proportional to the magnitude of the
net force acting on the body.
m constant= =
∑
a
F
r
r
a m r r
⋅ = ∑F
m is inertial mass of a bodyNewton’s Second Law
2
m  =  k New g  ton N
s
()
Fma =
⎛⎞
⎜⎟
⎝⎠
Can you think of a force that is equal to 1 Newton?
Hint:  Consider the “weight” of a common object
2
1N
1 N 0.1 kg
10 m/s
g Fmg
m
= =
==Newton’s Second Law
If a net external force acts on the body, the body accelerates.
The direction of acceleration is the same as the direction of the
net force. The net force vector is equal to the mass of the body
times the acceleration of the body.
a m r r
⋅ = ∑F
x x F a m⋅ = ∑
y y F a m⋅ = ∑
z z
F a m⋅ = ∑Newton’s Second Law
z The design of high-
performance motorcycles is
based on Newton’s
Second Law
z To maximize the forward
acceleration, motorcycles
are made as light as
possible (minimum mass!)
and have the most powerful
engine possible (maximum
forward force!)
Powerful engine
Large F
Lightweight body
Small m
a m r r
⋅ = ∑F
MAX MAX
MIN MINUnit of Force
z SI unit of the magnitude of force: Newton [N], unit of force that
gives acceleration of 1 m/s2 to a body with a mass of 1 kg.Types of Forces
Contact force: Two objects pushing against each other
Fa,b =  “force acting on a due to b”
Fhead,thumb = “force on head due to thumb”
r
m1 m2
F12 F21
Action at a distance:  Gravitational force, Electromagnetic force
12
12 2
Gravitational Force

mm FG
r
=z Weight of a body: the force of Earth’s gravitational attraction to
a body.
z Weight is a vector!
z Weight acts on bodies all the time, whether they are in free fall
or not.
z Mass characterizes inertial properties of a body.
z Large stone
z Hard to throw because of its large mass
z Hard to lift because of its large weight
Mass and Weight
g w r r
⋅ = mWarm-Up: Newton’s Laws
z N1L: An object at rest will remain at rest unless it is acted upon by a
net external force. An object in motion with constant velocity will
continue to move with constant velocity unless it is acted upon by a
net external force.
z N2L: If a net external force acts on the body, the body accelerates.
The direction of acceleration is the same as the direction of the net
force. The net force vector is equal to the mass of the body times the
acceleration of the body.
z N3L: For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
∑ = 0 F
r
∑ = a m F
r r
A on B B on A F F
r r
− =Warm-Up: Newton’s Laws
z N1L and N2L apply to a specific body.
z Decide to which body you are referring! It is not trivial
sometimes.
z Only forces acting on the body matter.
z To analyze person walking, include the force that the ground
exerts on the person as he walks, but NOT the force that the
person exerts on the ground.
z Free-body diagrams are essential to help identify the relevant
forces.
z Action-reaction pair NEVER appear in the same free-body
diagram.
z When a problem involves more than one body: take this problem
apart and draw a separate free-body diagram for each body.Newton’s Third Law
z Newton's Third Law
z Forces always occur in equal and opposite pairs.
z If object A exerts a force on object B, then object B
will exert an equal and opposite force on object A.
z Newton's Third Law is often commonly stated "For every action
there is an equal and opposite reaction."
z The Action and Reaction forces in Newton's Third Law act on
different objects, never on the same object. Force Diagrams
FR on M = FM on RFree Body Diagrams
z Free-Body Force Diagram is a diagram that shows a single object
(as a point) by itself, free of its surroundings, with vectors drawn
to show the magnitudes and directions of all forces exerted ON
the object by other objects.
z Be careful to include only the forces acting ON the object.
z Do not include any forces exerted BY the object on other objects
or on itself.
z Two forces which constitute a Newton's Third Law Action-Reaction
Pair NEVER appear on the same force diagram since these forces
always act on different objects.
z When the problem involves more than one object you should
draw separate force diagrams for each object. Free Body Diagrams
z In some circumstances when objects that are in physical contact are
moving as one unit (both have the same acceleration) it is
acceptable, and in fact useful, to draw a composite force diagram for
the objects. In this case the forces exerted on one object by the other
do not appear on the diagram because the forces would occur in equal
and opposite pairs by Newton's Third Law and would thus cancel each
other.
z You should be able to answer the question "What other body is
applying this force?" for every force on your force diagram. If you
can't answer that question you may be dealing with a non-existent
force.
z Never include non-existent forces such as "the force of acceleration
(the "ma" force)" Newton’s 2nd
Law says that for an object: F = ma . We must isolate the
forces acting only on the object and draw the Free Body Diagram.
THEN, solve for the net force on the object to find its acceleration.
(board not moving!) 0 
0 
xx
yy
Fma
Fma
==
==
∑
∑
B = board
F = floor
W = wall
E  = earth
FW,B  FB,W
FB,F
FB,E
FF,B
FE,B
All Force Pairs
FB,W
+ FB,F
+ FB,E
= 0
FB,W
FB,F  FB,E
Free Body Diagram
Free Body DiagramsApplying Newton’s LawsApplying Newton’s Laws
z We know three Newton’s Laws of motion, the foundation of
classical mechanics.
z We know concepts of forces and masses.
z We know how to draw force diagrams (including free body
diagrams).
z Let’s improve problem-solving skills of applying Newton’s
laws to different real-life situations.Warm-Up: Newton’s Laws
z N1L: An object at rest will remain at rest unless it is acted upon
by a net external force. An object in motion with constant velocity
will continue to move with constant velocity unless it is acted
upon by a net external force.
z N2L: If a net external force acts on the body, the body
accelerates. The direction of acceleration is the same as the
direction of the net force. The net force vector is equal to the
mass of the body times the acceleration of the body.
z N3L: For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
∑ = 0 F
r
∑ = a m F
r r
A on B B on A F F
r r
− =Warm-Up: Newton’s Laws
z N1L and N2L apply to a specific body.
z Decide to which body you are referring! It is not trivial
sometimes.
z Only forces acting on the body matter.
z To analyze person walking, include the force that the ground
exerts on the person as he walks, but NOT the force that the
person exerts on the ground.
z Free-body diagrams are essential to help identify the relevant
forces.
z Action-reaction pair NEVER appear in the same free-body
diagram.
z When a problem involves more than one body: take this problem
apart and draw a separate free-body diagram for each body.N1L. Equilibrium
z Body is in equilibrium when it is at rest or moving with constant
velocity in an inertial frame of reference.
z Hanging lamp
z Suspension bridge
z Airplane flying at constant speed
z N1L: When a particle is at rest or is moving with constant velocity
in inertial frame of reference, the vector sum of all forces acting on
it must be zero:
∑ = 0 F
r
∑ ∑ = = 0 0 y x F F
Particle in equilibrium,
vector form
Particle in equilibrium,
component formN1L. Equilibrium of Particle
Problem-Solving Strategy
„ IDENTIFY the relevant concepts: You must use Newton’s first Law
for any problem that involves forces acting on a body in equilibrium.
Remember that “equilibrium” means that the body either remains at
rest or moves with constant velocity. For example, a car is in
equilibrium when it’s parked, but also when it’s driving down a straight
road at a steady speed.
„ If the problem involves more than one body, and the bodies interact
with each other, you’ll also need to use Newton’s third Law. This law
allows you to relate the force that one body exerts on a second body to
the force that the second body exerts on the first one.
„ Be certain that you identify the target variable(s). Common target
variables in equilibrium problems include the magnitude of one of the
forces, the components of a force, or the direction of a force.N1L. Equilibrium of Particle
Problem-Solving Strategy, continued
„ SET UP the problem using the following steps:
1. Draw a very simple sketch of the physical situation, showing dimensions and
angles. You don’t have to be an artist!
2. For each body that is in equilibrium, draw a free-body diagram of this body.
For the present, we consider the body as a particle, so a large dot will do to
represent it. In your free-body diagram, do not include the other bodies that
interact with it, such as a surface it may be resting on, or a rope pulling on it.
3. Now ask yourself what is interacting with the body by touching it or in any
other way. On your free-body diagram, draw a force vector for each interaction.
If you know the angle at which a force is directed, draw the angle accurately and
label it. A surface in contact with the body exerts a normal force perpendicular to
the surface and possibly a friction force parallel to the surface. Remember that a
rope or chain can’t push on a body, but can only pull in a direction along its
length. Be sure to include the body’s weight, except in cases where the body has
negligible mass (and hence negligible weight). If the mass is given, use  w=mg
to find the weight. Label each force with a symbol representing the magnitude of
the force.N1L. Equilibrium of Particle
Problem-Solving Strategy, continued
„ SET UP, continued:
4. Do not show in the free-body diagram any forces exerted by the body on any
other body. The sums in equations include only forces that act on the body.
Make sure you can answer the question “What other body causes that force?” for
each force. If you can’t answer that question, you may be imagining a force that
isn’t there.
5. Choose a set of coordinate axes and include them in your free-body
diagram. (If there is more than one body in the problem, you’ll need to
choose axes for each body separately.) Make sure you label the positive direction
for each axis. This will be crucially important when you take components of the
force vectors as part of your solution. Often you can simplify the problem by your
choice of coordinate axes. For example, when a body rests or slides on a plane
surface, it’s usually simplest to take the axes in the directions parallel and
perpendicular to this surface, even when the plane is tilted. N1L. Equilibrium of Particle
Problem-Solving Strategy, continued
„ EXECUTE the solution as follows:
1. Find the components of each force along each of the body’s coordinate axes.
Draw a wiggly line through each force vector that has been replaced by its
components, so you don’t count it twice. Keep in mind that while the magnitude
of a force is always positive, the component of a force along a particular
direction may be positive or negative.
2. Set the algebraic sum of all x-components of force equal to zero. In a separate
equation, set the algebraic sum of all y-components equal to zero. (Never add x-
and y-components in a single equation.) You can then solve these equations for
up to two unknown quantities, which may be force magnitudes, components, or
angles.
3. If there are two or more bodies, repeat all of the above steps for each body. If
the bodies interact with each other, use Newton’s third law to relate the forces
they exert on each other.
4. Make sure that you have as many independent equations as the number of
unknown quantities. Then solve these equations to obtain the target variables.N1L. Equilibrium of Particle
Problem-Solving Strategy, continued
„ EVALUATE the answer:
o Look at your results and ask whether they make sense.
o When the result is a symbolic expression or formula, try to think of
special cases (particular values or extreme cases for the various
quantities) for which you can guess what the results ought to be.
o Check to see that your formula works in these particular cases.N2L. Dynamics of Particles
z If an object is not in equilibrium then it will experience an
acceleration. The relationship between the net force acting on the
object and its acceleration is given by Newton's Second Law.
x x ma F = ∑ y y ma F = ∑
a m F
r r
= ∑Problem-Solving Strategy
z Make a sketch of the problem showing all objects and
surfaces involved.
z In an area away from your overall sketch, isolate EACH
object in the problem by drawing a free-body force
diagram for the object. This diagram should show all of the
forces acting on the object. Identify each force with an
appropriate UNIQUE symbol.
z Select a convenient coordinate system for each force
diagram and indicate the coordinate axes on your
diagram(s).
z Write each force in component representation (either using
unit vectors or using column vector form). Express
magnitudes as positive quantities and use + or - signs to
indicate directions. Frictional Forces
z Friction force is a contact
force
z Very important force in
everyday life
z Car: tires, brakes, oil in
the engine
z Air drag: parachutes,
resisting motion – bad
fuel economy
z Everything is in place
due to friction: nails,
bulbs, caps…
z Sports: ice hockey,
bicycles,…Frictional Forces
z Static Friction
z Opposes the impending motion.
z Takes on whatever value is necessary to keep the object at rest
(up to a limit), fs < μsN.
z When on the verge of slipping the static frictional force takes on
its maximum possible value of fs, max = μsN.
z μs, the coefficient of static friction, depends on the surfaces in
contact.
z Kinetic Friction
z Opposes the motion of an object that is moving.
z Has a value given by fk = μkN where μk, the coefficient of kinetic
friction, depends on the surfaces in contact.
z It is typically harder to cause an object to move than to keep it
moving, μk < μs. Coefficients of Friction

Read More

ENGLISH FOR UNIVERSITY TEACHING KEYS TO EXERCISES

ENGLISH FOR UNIVERSITY TEACHING

KEYS TO EXERCISES

UNIT 6 Japan’s Declining Population

B. Comprehension Questions

Exercise 1.

1. Japan’s current problems are its growing number of old people and dwindling birth rate.
2. Because Japan’s education system is costly and competitive.
3. There will be a decline in the work force that will affect the economy.
4. One solution to increase the number of population is to encourage couples to have more babies for the national well-being.
5. Because larger population will destroy the environment and downgrade the quality of life.

Exercise 2.

1. T
2. T
3. T
4. T
5. F
6. F
7. T
8. T

C. Words Study

Exercise . 1 A

Verb	Noun	Adjective	Adverb
1. encourage	courage	courageous	courageously
2. finance	finance	financial	financially
3. compete	competition	competitive	competitively
4. produce	production	productive	productively
5. prevent	prevention	preventive	preventively
6. predict	prediction	predictive	-
7. control	control	controllable	controllably
8. complete	completion	complete	completely

Exercise 1 B.

1. courageous
2. finance
3. competition
4. productive
5. preventive
6. prediction
7. control
8. completely

Exercise 2.

1. are afraid
2. rate
3. avoid
4. forecasted
5. can not
6. influence
7. keep

D. Grammar and Usage

Exercise 1.

Growing, dwindling, falling, graying, changing

Exercise 2.

1. interesting
2. frightened; frightening
3. broken
4. burning
5. boring; bored
6. smiling
7. wounded

Exercise 3.

1. The amusing show makes him happy.
2. The police could not find the stolen car.
3. She gave a convincing argument.
4. We don’t like frozen food.
5. I found a trembling cat in the corner of that empty room.

E. Writing

Exercise 1.

1. Japan is worried about its growing number of old people.
2. The nations’ falling birthrate could endanger population.
3. Early action must be taken to stop the declining trend.
4. The main cause was the increasing number of single people.
5. Poor housing and working condition are keeping the birth rate low.

Exercise 2.

1. refuse
2. damage
3. are against
4. affect
5. the work force

UNIT 7 Cattle Droving

B. Comprehension Questions

Exercise 1.

1. They would ride through some of Australia’s most exciting grassland and deserts.
2. It would take five days to get to the nearest railhead.
3. Because he was not considered old enough.
4. Because he knows a lot about cattle for his age and he has done a lot of works in the cattle station lately.
5. Geoff actually did Burke’s task lately.
6. He muttered and kicked the veranda railing.

Exercise 2.

1. F
2. T
3. F
4. F
5. T
6. F

Exercise 3.

1. in order to train his pony.
2. by not letting him come on the droving
3. to replace Burke
4. he told the truth at last
5. as they both admitted their fault

C. Words Study

Exercise 1.

1. a
2. c
3. a
4. b
5. b

Exercise 2.

1. a
2. b
3. b
4. c
5. b
6. c

Exercise 3.

1. bird, cat, monkey, etc.
2. run, jump, crawl, etc.
3. memorize, imagine, visualize, etc.
4. miserable, heartbreaking, depressing, etc.
5. pleased, delighted, thrilled, etc.

D. Grammar and Usage

Exercise 1.

Adjectives: big, great, exciting, new, etc.

Examples of sentences:

He is a big boy. He is exciting about going abroad.

Adverbs: lately, well.

Examples of sentences:

He always studies lately. He does everything well.

Exercise 2.

1. angrily
2. good
3. bitterly
4. extremely
5. gloomy
6. guilty
7. happily
8. glad

Exercise 3.

1. The train never comes late.
2. The bus is always late.
3. She wants to take an early bus.
4. I get up early every morning.
5. The students did their exam fast.
6. I hardly recognized him because of his new hair cut.

E. Writing

Exercise 1.

1. Burke knows a lot about cattle, and does too. (... and so does Ann.
2. Geoff didn’t want to go, and Burke didn’t either (...and neither did Burke.)
3. Grandfather was happy to learn about the boys’ honesty, and Mr. Blair was too. (...and so was Mr. Blair.)
4. Grandfather would take the cattle to the nearest railhead, and Mr. Blair would too. (...and so would Mr. Blair.)
5. Geoff couldn’t cheat his best friend, and Burke could not either. (...and neither could Burke.).

Exercise 2.

2. In the beginning, only Burke could go with them because he had done a lot of work around the cattle station.
3. But, in fact, it was Geoff  who had been doing Burke’s chores lately.
4. Yesterday after Geoff fed the horses in the pen, he didn’t use the chain to fasten the gate.
5. The horses got out and Mr. Blair was angry with Burke.
6. At first, Geoff wanted to put the blame on Burke who had taken the credit for the work he didn’t do.

UNIT 8 Food Preservation

B. Comprehension Questions

Exercise 1.

6. It starts to decay and gives off a very bad smell.
7. The two causes of food spoilage are: the growth of microorganism on the outside and the chemical changes on the inside.
8. Because they are preserved.
9. Because they can cause food poisoning.
10. Drying and curing have been practices for a long time.
11. Pasteurization can be used for protecting milk from bacteria.
12. It makes the meat more tender.

Exercise 2.

9. F
10. F
11. T
12. F
13. F
14. F
15. F

C. Words Study

Exercise 1.

1. break down
2. packed in
3. give off
4. turn into
5. made of
6. drives out
7. used for

Exercise 2.

9. preservation
10. preserve
11. sterilization
12. sterilized
13. sterile
14. sterilization
15. spoils
16. spoils

Exercise 3.

8. imagination
9. understanding
10. analysis
11. concentration
12. realization
13. prediction
14. solution

D. Grammar and Usage

Exercise 1.

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
Wise	Wiser than	The wisest
Strange	Stranger than	The strangest
Famous	More famous than	The most famous
Interesting	More interesting than	The most interesting
Bad	Worse than	The worst
Little	Less than	The least
Good	Better than	The best
Far	Farther than	The farthest

Exercise 2.

8. better
9. worse
10. heavier
11. more carefully
12. most courageous
13. least

Exercise 3.

6. She plays piano more often that she studies English.
7. He bought more potatoes than what he cooked.
8. The soup smells better than it tastes.
9. He goes to campus more often than he plays basketball.
10. The secretary types a letter faster than she takes notes.
11. She meets people friendlier than she speaks on the telephone.

E. Writing

Exercise 1.

6. I couldn’t hear what he said.
7. Please tell me what happened.
8. I don’t know who she is.
9. Do you know when they are coming?
10. I can’t remember how much it costs.
11. Could you tell me who is coming to the party?
12. Do you know whose pen this is?
13. Where she went  is none of your business.
14. I don’t know when she will come.
15. I wonder what she needs.

Exercise 2.

1. Do you know how much the plan ticket will cost?
2. Budi has forgotten where/when/why he left his bag in the room.
3. They should listen to what she is saying.
4. She asked me what I told him yesterday.
5. Tuti does not remember how/when/why she got lost in downtown.
6. His mother asked Roni how he would like his tea.
7. Do you know who suggested that?
8. I asked her why she is bored and sad.

Read More

PARAGRAF

PARAGRAF
Satuan bahasa tulis yg terdiri atas beberapa kalimat yg tersusun secara runtut, logis, dan dlm satu kesatuan ide yg lengkap

FUNGSI PARAGRAF

1.Mengekspresikan gagasan secara tertulis yg tersusun secara logis dan runtut.

2.Menandai peralihan gagasan baru

3.Memudahkan pengorganisasian gagasan

4.Memudahkan pengembangan topik.

5.Memudahkan pengendalian variabel

MACAM-MACAM PARAGRAF

A. Berdasarkan letak kalimat utama

1.Paragraf deduktif (terletak pd awal paragraf)

2.Paragraf induktif (terletak pd akhir paragraf)

3.Paragraf campuran (terletak pd awal dan akhir paragraf)

4.Paragraf deskriptif (terletak ada keseluruhan paragraf)

SYARAT PARAGRAF

1.Kohesi/kesatuan pikiran (semua kalimat membahas satu gagasan utama)

2.Koherensi (hubungan kalimat yg logis, kejelasan struktur dan makna paragraf)

  a) pengulangan kata kunci

  b) dijalin dengan kata ganti, pronominal

  c) kata transisi (sebab-akibat: karena, akibatnya, maka, dampaknya, dll.; hasil, akibat: akibatnya, dampaknya, akhirnya, jadi, dll.; pertentangan : tetapi, namun, sebaliknya,dll; waktu: ketika; syarat: jika, apabila; penegasan: jadi, dengan demikian;gabungan : dan, serta; urutan: mula-mula, pertama, kedua,dll.)

  d) struktur yg paralel

3. Ketuntasan (kesemurnaan) dapat dilakukan dengan (a) klasifikasi objek secara lengkap dan menyeluruh dan (b) ketuntasan bahasan (pembahasan yg menyeluruh)

4. Konsistensi sudut pandang (aku, dia, karangan ilmiah : penulis)

5. Keruntutan --> dapat dilakukan dengan : (a) penalaran, (b) kejelasan gagasan, makna, dan struktur, (c) kt transisi yg tepat, (d) kt ganti yg tepat, (e) hubungan antargagasan, antarkata, antarkalimat yg tidak terputus

JENIS PARAGRAF

1.Berdasarkan Isi

     (a) Narasi  (peristiwa/konsep yg dijalin secara kronologis dlm setting, waktu, dan pelaku. Misal: novel)

     (b) Deskripsi (menggambarkan/mendeskripsikan objek secara detail dan “hidup”

     (c)  Eksposisi (bertujuan menambah wawasan pembaca dengan angka, data, dll)

     (d) Argumentasi ( bertujuan memengaruhi/mengubah pendapat pembaca)

     (e) Persuasi (bertujuan agar pembaca melakukan tindakan)

2. Berdasarkan sudut pandang penalaran

1.Paragraf induksi

2.Paragraf deduksi

3.Paragraf induksi-deduksi

3. Berdasarkan tempat dan fungsinya

1.Paragraf pengantar (menunjukkan pokok persoalan, menarik minat pembaca, menyampaikan ide sentral karangan)

  Dapat dengan: kutipan, anekdot,contoh/temuan awal, pernyataan yg tegas/tajam

2.  Paragraf pengembang/isi ((a) menguraikan, mendeskripsikan, membandingkan, menghubungkan, menjelaskan, menerangkan, (b) menolak konsep, (c) mendukung konsep

3.Paragraf peralihan (paragraf penghubung antara dua paragraf)

4.Paragraf penutup (menyimpulkan, menegaskan)

 

Read More